Compare and Contrast Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Compare and Contrast Paper - Essay Example Thus, as the name implies, current asserts can be consumed during the current period or they can be converted into cash within a short period of time. A good example of a current asset is a bar of soap in the shop or a bottle of cooking oil. These can be used within the current period or they can be converted into cash when they are bought by a buyer. 2. Any assets whose use is restricted for purposes other than the current operations must be excluded from current assets (Glautior & Underdown, 2001). Assets are classified as noncurrent assets if they are not expected to be converted into cash or consumed during one year of their operating cycle. The operating life cycle of the noncurrent assets is usually very long and it can exceed a period of ten years. In some instances, the noncurrent assets are intangible and they include investments and special purpose funds. These funds cannot be withdrawn or used within a short period but can only be used after proper plans have been put into place. Long term investments are regarded as noncurrent assets as this money will be meant for long term plans and may not be immediately withdrawn even in case of emergence. Noncurrent assets also include property, plant and equipment used in the firm. This equipment cannot be readily disposed given that it is in everyday use to manufacture goods and products that can be sold to generate cash. This equipment can only be disposed if it has past its expected life span but not for quick cash like current assets. 3. The main difference between current assets and noncurrent assets is that current assets can be in form of cash or other assets which can be easily converted into cash. On the other hand, noncurrent assets include investment and special purpose funds and these cannot be readily used like the current assets. Most current assets are tangible and they can be converted into cash easily. On the other hand, noncurrent assets are big assets which include equipment or machinery as well as other property which cannot be converted into cash over a very short period. In some instances, noncurrent assets are intangible which makes them different from the current assets. Another major notable difference between current assets and noncurrent assets is that their operating cycles are different. The operating cycle of a current asset is relatively shorter and it does not exceed a period of one year while that of a current asset is very long. The operating cycle of a noncurrent asset is more than 10 years long which makes it different from the current asset. For instance, operating cycle of a wine distillery which is a noncurrent asset may extend 10 years while that of a grocery shop may be no more than just a several days. 4. Order of liquidity can be loosely defined as the order upon which the items in the balance shit are listed depending on their liquidity (Chasteen, Flaherty & O’connor, 1998). As the name implies, order is concerned with chronological orga nisation of items in their descending order while liquidity is concerned with establishing the readiness upon which cash can be disposed. Something that is liquid is readily used such as cash which can be taken straight away from the pocket to purchase something. In this order, the current assets will come after cash or other payments as these can be

Asses sociological explanations for ethnic differences in educational achievement Essay Example for Free

Asses sociological explanations for ethnic differences in educational achievement Essay Ethnicity refers to shared cultural practices, perspectives, and distinctions that set apart one group of people from another. That is, ethnicity is a shared cultural heritage. The most common characteristics distinguishing various ethnic groups are ancestry, a sense of history, language and religion. Modern Britain is said to be a multicultural society made up of many different ethnic groups. Achievement within education is very varied across cultures, with some such as Chinese and Indian students performing above the average, and African-Caribbean and Pakistani students performing well below average. There are many factors which can reduce a child from an ethnic backgrounds attainment. For instance, Material deprivation. Material deprivation focuses on income inequality and the material problems that are associated with it. An example of such a study is J. W. B Douglas, The Home and The School (1964). He argued that an interlocking network of inequalities existed which operated against many working class students. This included, differential effects of regional and variations in educational provision and expenditure. Also, housing and environmental factors. Which led to chances of access to good primary schools. Therefore, hindering the chance of access to top streams. As a result, minority ethnic children are more likely to live in low-income households. This means they face the problems that Douglas highlighted, the material factors, such as poor quality housing, no working space and even possibly bad influence of peers. One other reason for differences in educational achievement between ethnicities is the basic family life. African-Caribbean communities have a high level of lone parenthood. Actually, it is estimated 50% of African-Caribbean households have a lone-parent . This can mean that many face financial problems, this can lead to lower achievement in school (Douglas’ material factors). Conversely, single mothers can be a positive role model or influence for many young girls, meaning they perform better in education. Another explanation for ethnic differences is Language. For many children of an ethnic minority English is not their primary language. This can be a disadvantage because they may not understand exams as well as others. Also they might struggle to express themselves with limited English. Finally, some teachers may mistake poor English for a lack of intelligence, when actually this could be completely untrue, meaning that a clever child may be let down by the teacher who might not push the student to their full potential. However, you could argue that Chinese and Indian students first language isn’t English, on the other hand in these two cultures it is the norm to learn English as a strong second language. Therefore, they are not hindered by the second language barrier, as opposed to Bangladeshi’s for example. Language was such a big issue that Bernstein (1973) categorised students into two groups. Elaborated and restricted. In the case of an elaborated code, the speaker will select from a relatively extensive range of alternatives. However in the case of a restricted code the number of these alternatives is often severely limited. Bernstein’s work was not always praised. For instance, Labov (1974) argued that young blacks in the United States, although using language which certainly seems an example of the restricted code, nevertheless display a clear ability to argue logically. Their lack of knowledge concerning the subject may reach further than just the exams they have to take. For instance, due to the large amount of failing black Caribbean’s and Bangladeshi’s (a combined total of 41% managed to get 5 A* C grades), teachers may be subconsciously prejudiced against ethnic minorities. This can lower the students attainments in many ways, one is that the teachers give the student lower grades. Another way is that the teacher negatively labels a student of ethnic minority which can lead to self-fulfilling prophecy. Racism can also lead to conflict between students and teachers, making learning a much harder task. Lastly, racism can lead to low-self esteem among ethnic minorities. A researcher who studies this was Howard Becker (1971). Becker Interviewed 60 Chicago high school teachers. He found that they judged pupils according to how closely they fitted image of â€Å"ideal pupil†. Their conduct appearance influenced judgement. Middle class was closest to ideal, working class furthest away labelled as badly behaved. As a result you can see, if teachers labelled students on how they look, you can imagine how they would label a whole ethnic race. Another factor for ethnic differences in educational achievement is the ethnocentric curriculum. There are several reasons why ethnic minorities may struggle due to this curriculum. One is that the subjects often focus on British culture; naturally White British students will have grown up with this culture, so they might have a greater understanding of the content than students who grew up in a different culture. Another reason is that the content of the curriculum could lower ethnic minorities self-esteem, this is because often the white character is seen as â€Å"good† and superior whilst the ethnic minorities are seen as â€Å"not as academic†. However, it is crucial not to forget that every ethnic minority underachieves at this level. In fact, in the UK, Chinese and Indian pupils score better grades than the â€Å"White† ethnic race. One of the main reasons for this is the support of the parents. Research has shown that some parents of ethnic minority, such as Chinese and Indian, take more interest in their child’s education, they also encourage their child more than other in other cultures. This obviously leads to higher achievement for the child. Not only the parents play a part. Some teachers may stereotype some ethnic minorities to be intelligent and hard-working. This encouragement and sort of support can aid a student in raising their grades. To conclude, there are many sociological explanations for the ethnic differences in educational achievement, from language barriers to family life at home. However, it is important to remember not all ethnic minorities to underachieve. Rafi Kentafi Lindill 12P.

The Main Bank Relationship in Japan :: GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

The Main Bank Relationship in Japan First, it is necessary to define what a Japanese â€Å"main bank† is. The â€Å"main bank† is defined as the â€Å"financial group† (â€Å"kinyu keiretsu† in japanese) in the paper. â€Å"Financial group† is defined in principle by the amount of financing that a bank supplies to a particular borrowing company. When a given company has taken out the largest amount of loans from a particular bank for the past three or more years consecutively, the company is viewed as belonging to that bank’s â€Å"financial group.† Nearly all the companies listed in the first section of Tokyo Stock Exchange have a main bank. However, these companies borrow not just from their main bank, but from a large number of other banks and financial institution as well. While the main bank is an important lender, the company must also rely on loans from the main bank’s competitors which in sum far exceed those from the main bank itself. Although the generally accepted notion among researchers in that the main bank relationship in Japan is extremely stable, this evidence suggests that the Japanese main bank is one of much more fluidity than has been generally believed. Now, the paper presents some factors that might account for the actual changing patterns of main bank affiliations. These factors are (a) the uncertainty of companies’ operating performance, assuming the main bank relationship serves an important function of risk-sharing between companies and banks, it can be derived that an increase in the uncertainty of the business environment for a specific industry should decrease the proportion of companies that change their main bank, thus, changes in main bank affiliation will be systematically related to changes in the uncertainty of the performance of corporate borrowers; (b) the history of the main bank relationship, as the accumulated value of the main bank relationship is assumed to be positively c orrelated with the duration of the relationship, the longer a company has continued to maintain a main bank relationship with a specific bank, ceteris paribus, the less likely the company is to break that relationship off; this proposition concerning the changeableness of the main bank relationship is also a testable one; (c) the growth of the borrowing companies, it can be regarded as related to main bank changes in 2 ways: first, the growth of a company raise its

Environmental Impacts Essay

There is a large gap between developed and developing countries in terms of the attention given to environmental concerns. As a general rule, developing nations place the environment low on their list of priorities. Managing the ecosystem takes a back seat to economic advancement and industrialization, which are seen as more pressing needs. On the other hand, developed nations generally take a more proactive role in environment management because they have the budget and the technology to do so. They have also recognized that further economic development can no longer do without sustainable environmental practices (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2001). Stemming from this basic difference of priorities is the great disparity between the environment’s impacts on the health of people living in the First World and those living in the Third World. However, it is simplistic to assume that the former are invariably healthier than the latter. While it is true that developing nations use less environmentally-friendly practices, the sheer level of industrialization and commercialization in developed countries sometimes means that these countries produce far more pollution and thus create more health problems for their citizens. A comprehensive assessment of the interaction between human health and the natural environment is not possible given the length of this paper. Nevertheless, this essay will explore some differences between First and Third World nations with regards to two selected major public health issues, namely, air pollution and water pollution. Air Pollution Palo and Solberg (1999) have identified carbon dioxide as the most abundant greenhouse gas produced today, and they cite it as the most critical contributor to global warming, a phenomenon that poses a grave threat to human health and security. Confalioneri et al. (2007) detailed the exact nature of this threat in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Fourth Assessment Report. Global warming first affects humanity by changing weather patterns. Extreme temperature swings, irregular precipitation, rising sea levels, more powerful storms, droughts and heatwaves have all become more common as a direct result of global warming. These phenomena in turn negatively affect the quality and quantity of food, water and air available to human populations. These phenomena inflict a great amount of damage on human settlements and infrastructure as well. The worldwide spikes in malnutrition, infectious diseases, and deaths from extreme weather events are all directly proportional to the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The IPCC also warned that developing societies were at the greatest risk to these environmental pressures. Among these developing nations, Douglas et al. (2001) cited coral reef atolls and reef islands as the most prone because their rates of land loss are dramatically impacted on by incremental rises in sea level. They cited the rapidly disappearing land of the Maldives, the Marshall Islands, and some low-lying Japanese islands as some of the most alarming manifestations of global warming. They added that rise in sea levels has led not only to escalating land loss, but also to the contamination of underground water sources in nations such as Israel, Thailand and island states in the Pacific and the Caribbean. The combined loss of arable land and potable water caused by global warming does not only lead to malnutrition and disease but also to social pressures such as overcrowding in cities, which increase the strain on the human population’s health. In addition, developing countries lack the infrastructure to protect their populations from the increasingly negative repercussions of climate change. In nations such as India, Bangladesh and Burma, relief efforts for victims of increasingly destructive storms are routinely slowed down by the insufficient facilities, resources and personnel. However, it should be noted that developed countries are not immune to these calamities. The unprecedented destruction wrought by Hurricane Katrina on a major U. S. city serves as a grim reminder of the vulnerability of First World nations to extreme weather events. Cooper and Block (2007) are only two of many Americans who have accused the United States’ Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) of being prepared for natural disasters â€Å"on paper,† only to be caught flat-footed when Hurricane Katrina struck the city of New Orleans on August 29, 2005. Cooper and Block also blame FEMA’s ineptitude for the unsanitary living conditions thousands of survivors had to endure for several weeks after the disaster. To this day, New Orleans has not fully recovered from the hurricane. Carbon dioxide emissions are not the only major source of air pollution. Other chemicals such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) also pose significant health problems. As Tang (2004) has underlined, these primary pollutants are doubly hazardous because they can react photochemically to create secondary pollutants, and these secondary pollutants can also undergo further chemical reactions which result in even deadlier substances. This type of air pollution is one of the most critical problems in China today, especially in the capital of Beijing. As one of the most rapidly developing countries in the world, China has seen an enormous surge in demand for fossil fuels to feed its factories and the motorized transport of its citizens. In addition, China has much lower emissions standards for its automobiles compared to other countries, leading to more pollution produced per vehicle. Tang cited Song et al. (2003), who noted the sharp increase in respiratory diseases among Chinese living in urban areas, as well as many residents’ complaints about the chronic lack of visibility in Beijing. Once again, these health problems are not limited to developing countries. In fact, this type of air pollution is acutely felt in megacities such as Los Angeles and London, where air quality is severely compromised by the millions of automobiles and the factories located in and around the city limits. However, developed countries are taking definite steps to decrease the pollution, with one notable exception. As Al Gore observed in the documentary An Inconvenient Truth (2006), the United States lags far behind its European counterparts when it comes to enforcing more environmentally friendly emissions standards for its automobiles. The discrepancy has reached the point where some American vehicles can no longer be sold in European countries because they no longer meet government environment safety standards.

Radiological Threat to Public Safety

Radiation is a silent death sentence i. e. you cannot see, smell, or taste it. When radiological material ends up in the wrong hands it can become a catastrophic weapon of mass destruction. The public's security against radiological threats is in the hands of federal, state, and local government agencies. These agencies have the responsibility to regulate, mitigate, monitor, and respond to incidents involving sources of radiological materials. An analysis of current radiological threats will provide an improved understanding of potential and creditable radiological threats confronted by the public. Radiological Threat to Public Safety Newswire (2011) states, â€Å"Less than one-third of the population feels they are prepared for a terrorist attack, specifically a radiological attack such as a dirty bomb; yet over eighty percent of Americans feel this type of threat is imminent†. Howard & Forest (2008), suggest that a terrorist radiological attack would come by way of a radiological dispersal devise (RDD) or a dirty bomb i. e. a bomb mixed with radiological material and conventional explosives (p. 90). Oppenheimer (2008) states, â€Å"The threat of nuclear terrorism is far more likely from a radiological dispersal device (RDD)–a conventional IED laced with a radioisotope–than via a nuclear fission weapon†(para 1). Uranium and plutonium are well known elements used in nuclear devises. Howard et al. (2008) states, â€Å"Only uranium and a few other elements, notably plutonium, can be turned into explosive weapons, but many more elements emit radiation† (p. 90). Howard et al. (2008), states, â€Å"Two basic designs of crude nuclear explosives are likely to be adequate for most purposes of terrorist groups intent on nuclear terrorism†(p. 14). The first generation, gun-type nuclear explosive device is similar to the bomb that destroyed the city of Hiroshima, Japan. This is the simplest crude devise to design and construct with a powerful nuclear explosion (Howard et al. 2008, p. 114). The United States Department of Health and Human Services (2011) stipulates that the first step in understanding creditable radiation emergencies is to â€Å"draw the distinction between a nuclear event (like the bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan) and a radiological event, such as a nuclear power plant incident or a radiological dispersal device (e. . , dirty bomb)†. The following is suggested credible nuclear and radiological events. Nuclear Events; * Produces a nuclear detonation involving the joining (fusion) or splitting (fission) of atoms to produce an intense pulse or wave of heat, light, air pressure, and radiation. * Highly destructive explosion that instantly devastates people and buildings because of extreme heat and impact of the blast. * Leaves large amounts of radioactivity and fallout behind. Radiological Events; * May involve explosion and release of radioactivity, but no nuclear fission. Typically, have less radioactivity released than in a nuclear event. In both events, the wind direction along with the weather patterns can spread radioactivity over a wide area (DHHS, 2008). Oppenheimer (2008), stipulated that the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) suggested that â€Å"From 1993 to 2004, there were more than 400 confirmed incidents of trafficking materials–arrests and seizures involving radioactive sources–that could only be used to produce a RDD†(para 5). According to Howard et al. (2008) â€Å"no terrorist group has ever fielded or deployed a nuclear devise†(p. 110). However, Oppenheimer (2008) states, â€Å"Only one RDD incident is known: A dynamite bomb laced with cesium-137, a radioisotope used widely in medicine, was planted by Chechen separatists in a Moscow park in December 1995† (para 3). Authorities were able to find the terrorist RDD before it was detonated (Oppenheimer, 2008, para 3). The premise is evident i. e. terrorist organizations have the capability to obtain and deploy a RDD. Howard et al. (2008) suggest, â€Å"A homemade nuclear device, although crude and less efficient than a state military weapon, could very well serve the needs of a terrorist group† (p. 113). Bullock, Haddow, Coppola, & Yeletaysi (2009), describe different types of terrorist events that might include the use of radioactive material. * Introducing radioactive material into the food or water supply. * Using explosives to scatter radioactive materials. * Bombing or destroying a nuclear facility. * Exploding a small nuclear device† (p. 187). Oppenheimer (2008) described and highlighted the unpredictable radiological poisoning of a former â€Å"KBG agent Alexander Litvinenko by polonium-210 in London in November 2006 â€Å"(para 6). This type of radiation, once inhaled or ingested, will cause an illness that is slow and painful. The contamination spread as the Litvinenko moved about London and beyond (Oppenheimer, 2008, para 6). According to Oppenheimer (2008), â€Å"The U. K. Health Protection Agency had the unenviable task of tracing and testing the urine of hundreds of potential contacts and arranging for them to be treated and counseled†(para 6). There were a total of 17 people who were contaminated with radiation at above-average levels (Oppenheimer, 2008, para 6). Oppenheimer (2008) suggests that â€Å"A growing number of smuggling cases since 2002 have involved radioisotopes used in civilian industries and medicine†(para 2). Radioactive materials that are no longer considered useful in medicine could be used in building a RDD or a dirty bomb (The American Nuclear Society, 2005). Some agencies feel as though there has â€Å"not been enough of a concerted effort focused on the threat of a radiological attack such as a â€Å"dirty bomb† (Newswire, 2011). Oppenheimer (2008) describes four attempts at deploying RDD by Chechens i. e. â€Å"deploying an RDD and attacking a nuclear power plant, which are not well documented but are known within the EOD (explosives ordnance disposal) community†(para 1). Hawley (2008) suggests, â€Å"The use of a pharmaceutical grade radioactive material attached to a pipe bomb would release radioactive material†. In addition this small amount of radiation could cause sickness over time. Howard et al. (2008) states, â€Å"Extended exposure to low-level radioactive material increases the likelihood of cellular destruction†(, p. 90). The low level of security at many of Russia’s nuclear power plants and abandoned Russian Northern Fleet submarines has also increased the risk of possible terrorist attacks or takeovers. â€Å"There still are about 120 subs with fueled reactors in need of disposal† (Oppenheimer, 2008, papa 2). If a meltdown or explosion at a nuclear facility ever took place a large quantity of radioactive material would be released into the environment. Employees at the nuclear facility would likely be contaminated with radioactive particles to include injuries from the explosion itself. Individuals who received a large dose of radiation might develop acute radiation syndrome. Individuals in the surrounding area could be exposed or contamination and would need medical assists along with decontamination (Bullock, et al. 2009 p. 233). This huge concern and worry of radiological threats, voiced by the public, might not be credible. This is based on research and analyses performed by numerous agencies. According to Bevelacqua & Stilp (2009), â€Å"Bombings involving storage facilities or transportation vehicle pose the greatest threat†(p. 60). Mitigating potential bombings of critical facilities and transportation is a challenge for federal, state and local agencies. Bevelacqua et al. (2009) states† A nuclear bomb threat is unlikely to be carries out for a number of reasons, including the extreme expense, its logistical difficulty, and the enormous amount of technology necessary to develop a disperse such a devise† (p. 9). Hawley (2008) states, â€Å"The use of an actual nuclear detonation device is unlikely and very improbable given security these materials have† (p. 233). The amount of nuclear material required for an extensive nuclear result and the particular type of material needed makes use unlikely (Hawley, 2008, p. 233). Bullock, et al. (2009) states â€Å"Although a dirty bomb could cause serious injuries from the explosion, it most likely would not have enough radioactive material in a form that would cause serious radiation sickness among large numbers of people. Oppenheimer (2008) suggests, â€Å"There are numerous obstacles to overcome when weaponizing radioactive materials; the same devices that could be a threat to the public also pose potential threats to terrorists†(para 3). Howard et al. 2008, describe the seven myths identified about the threat of nuclear terrorism. 1. Terrorist want a lot of people watching, not a lot of people dead. 2. Nuclear material required to make a bomb are nearly impossible for terrorist to obtain. 3. Difficulties of constructing or stealing a nuclear bomb are unlikely by a terrorist group. 4. The only way a terrorist organization could acquire a nuclear bomb is from a state. 5. The mistaken belief that it is possible to put in place around the United States and other major countries a security cordon that can reduce to a low level the risk that nuclear weapons and material might be smuggled in. 6. The notion that an offensive security posture alone will mitigate the threat of nuclear terrorism. 7. A number of states analysts argue that states would not be especially interested in a stolen nuclear or stolen material to make one, because they want to produce the material for as many nuclear weapons as they need (p. 02). According to Shaw (2001) â€Å"Most studies of preventing terrorist nuclear attacks have reached the same basic conclusion–none of the available basic techniques is sufficiently capable to preclude a successful attack with a high degree of confidence† (p 3). The following are the seven suggested basic techniques: 1. Arms control and related diplomatic measures to control proliferation and access to technology and materials for making nuclear weapons. 2. Physical security and control of existing weapons and materials. 3. Pre-emptive actions. . Deterrent threats of retaliation for attacks. 5. Border controls and related domestic security measures aimed at preventing the movement of weapons or materials into the US. 6. Intelligence collection and law enforcement measures leading to the discovery and apprehension of would-be perpetrators. 7. Effective consequence control and mitigation—still a long way from reality—could be at best a distant second in desirability. Public education on the effects of radiation might allow for understanding the credibility of radiological events. Hawley (2008) states, â€Å"Education on hazards of radiation and the effective use of radiation monitors can ease this fear† (p. 234). There are organizations established to educate radiological protection, challenges, and issues. The Newswire (2011) states, â€Å"The Radiological Threat Awareness Coalition (R-TAC) was established to increase awareness and preparedness in this country against a possible radiological attack such as a â€Å"dirty bomb†(para 1) This synergistic awareness and preparedness was validated successfully by London government agencies responding to prevented a radiological event from becoming catastrophe. Oppenheimer (2008) suggests that the â€Å"London incident response demonstrate that government agencies could rapidly adapt to an unprecedented situation†(para 6). This radiological event also showed that nuclear events are all but impossible to predict. Conclusion The mitigation of nuclear weapons issues remain a heighten concern by free nations. The management of the existing stockpiles in the former Soviet Union continues to be a challenge in addition to the activities of the other governments that control nuclear weapons and demonstrate troublesome behavior especially, Pakistan, North Korea, and Iran (Banks, Nevers, & Wallerstein, 2008, p. 7). According to Hawley (2008) â€Å"there is currently speculation that there are some small nuclear devises missing from Russia; but this has never been substantiated† (p. 233). However, the fear of missing nuclear devises is a weapon itself. According to Hawley (2008), there is an advantage to a noncredible RDD or a small RDD, and that is the public's reaction. The public's perception, and first responders, is that this event would be a radioactive disaster. However, the reality is that the amount of the radiation would not be dangerous, and as time passed, the danger would lessen as the radioactive material decayed to a lesser hazard. Radiation is one of the big unknowns and cause of fear because it is unknown. This fear makes radiation a key weapon for a terrorist organization. Given this analysis, the question continues to be asked. Is there a credible radiological threat? The answer is yes or maybe no. Either way terrorist organizations have instilled fear of possible radiological events in our nation's future.

Comparison between Google and Microsoft Products

Comparison between Google and Microsoft Products Define and compare the business strategies and business models of Google and Microsoft The two giant Information and Communication Technological companies have dominated their expertise fields comfortably. The Google Company’s strategy is bases upon the internet technology while Microsoft dominates management of the desktop applications with a wide range of software. There is high competition between the companies with each having to diversify to other core business units of the telecommunication world. The conflicting competition would probably benefit the users by catalyzing future advancement and promoting different strategies. The foundation of Google’s business model is on the search engine in which it dominates among many core related businesses and user applications. The online search algorithms require bright thoughts, high search speeds and supportive products.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Comparison between Google and Microsoft Pro ducts specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More On the other hand, the Microsoft becomes prominent because of its operating system, which is widely used all over the world today, advanced application and utility software. The ever-growing internet broadband connection determines the two companies’ chances of advancement. Has the Internet taken over the PC desktop as the centre of the action? Why or why not? The internet technology has advanced widely and according to the general views, internet based tasks seem to overtake the desktop processing. The concept often referred to as cloud or virtual computing has Google Company advancing to better height. Today people are interested in virtual working and management where there is freedom over the place of work as well as time to work. Microsoft seems to concentrate on desktop computation as the focus by influencing users on maintaining the desktop as the main strategy for computation. The ability to maintain such business continuity depends upon cash flow of which both of these companies enjoy. Why did Microsoft attempt to acquire Yahoo!? How did it affect its business model? Do you believe this was a good move? The advantage of allowing computers in the data centre settings to work out tasks called â€Å"cloud computing† lies on the ability to offer an array of internet option. Although Microsoft has a huge advantage of stable and well-ascertained popular applications among its users, the internet theories of search engines, real-time advertising, digital conferencing, digital plotting and photo management catalyzes the use of electronic information today. Virtual networked interfaces offer customers the ability to access information from various servers in a network as opposed working remotely on their desktops. This was the main reason why Microsoft wanted to acquire Yahoo.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It would provide an excellent chance for advancing their clients from the normal offer of tying them to one machine or local network. Today’s users need access of wide variety of information, which is only attainable through the networked servers. I think the move to acquire Yahoo was excellent since Microsoft would give Google a run for their money considering their financial strength. Today the Microsoft application business model that revolves round the desktop publications is highly threatened, since people face with diverging needs to access and compute information virtually. The Google views majority of its clients needs as being internet based. If this were the case, then Microsoft would wish to have similar shares of services, thus the need to acquire Yahoo. The Microsoft-Yahoo merge would have been an automatic challenge for Google. What is the significance of Google Apps to Googles future success? Some of the significant applications of Google include the ability to maintain data centres, which house all its applications. Google has evident future success abilities considering the increase on the need for internet. Google claim its products to be supplements to other companies products especially Microsoft’s. As much as their claim would be significantly right, Google’s applications seem to submerge Microsoft desktop applications. Their offers of the web-based services through the internet work out well because servers seem to form a strong establishment and use. Would you use Google Apps instead of Microsoft Office applications for computing tasks? Why or why not? I would prefer the Google applications over Microsoft because it already have well established internet search marketplace thus the reason why the services would definitely be better compared to Microsoft. The Google search engine is more sophisticated compared to the competitive companies.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Comparison between Google and Microsoft Products specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More People would wish to have cheaper application suites and Google has tried to incorporate majority of the office applications in its search package. Although much simple compared to Microsoft’s Applications they are much cheaper for both subscription and premier edition fees. Most business requires less advanced applications features as opposed to what is on offer by Microsoft for their Business operations. The security offered by the office product of Microsoft is reliable but eventually every business is profit oriented and as long as the outcome is achieved safely then Google offer all that is required for today’s organizations Which company and business model do you believe will prevail in this epic struggle? Justify your answer. In this epic struggle between the two companies, the Google Company’s struggle to offer better services seems more genuine. The performance of Microsoft online services is way below expectations compared to the ever-improving Google offers. Microsoft has the ability to improve to the status of Google starting from a humble beginning as opposed to merging with Yahoo. The move to acquire Yahoo is sceptical and seen as a move to fight Google other than a chance to advance. Microsoft’s goals of innovating or disrupting search fight to win in displaying advertisements and the aim of reinventing social media experiences and portals faces huge challenges such as technological changes. Disruptive new technologies affect most business models especially when the goals seem wide and focus is on competition only.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More

producing electricity essays

producing electricity essays There are many ways to produce electricity but unfortunately not all of them are clean and safe. Luckily here in Canada we have clean and safe alternatives to things like the burning of fossil fuels. We are the largest producer of hydropower in the world. Hydro energy is electricity made using water. How it works is, water flowing down a river or falling from a waterfall is used to spin turbines inside a generator. Large rivers with fast flowing water and giant waterfalls work the best. Hydropower is clean. It doesn't produce any greenhouse gases or other air pollutants. It also doesn't generate any waste products that might need special disposal. Unlike fossil fuels it's carbon-free energy, hydropower doesn't burn fossil fuels. Another good thing about hydropower is it's flexible and reliable. Hydropower can be turned on almost immediately to meet the fast growing electricity demands. Facilities can easily respond to emergency power situations and provide constant energy with water. Coal, Oil and Gas are called "fossil fuels" because they have been formed from the fossilised remains of prehistoric plants and animals. It works by the coal being crushed to a fine dust and burnt. (Oil and gas can be burnt as is.) When the fuel is burnt it heats up water to make steam then the steam turns the turbines, the turbines turns the generator, then the generator produces electricity that is sent all over the country. There are many disadvantages with the burning of fossil fuels. The main disadvantage of fossil fuels is pollution. Burning any fossil fuel produces carbon dioxide, which contributes to the "greenhouse effect", (warming the Earth). Burning coal produces more carbon dioxide than burning oil or gas. It also produces a gas that creates acid rain. But with the bad comes the good. Along with disadvantages there are also advantages. Very large amounts of electricity can be generated in one place using coal and Transporting oil and gas to ...

Grants and Artist-in-Residences are Awesome Opportunities

Grants and Artist-in-Residences are Awesome Opportunities Philanthropy is on the rise. Grants are plentiful, offering funding for publishing, research, workshops, writing, travel, individual/community projects, seminars and more. Grants often require an extensive application process. When applying, youll need a finely-honed mission and letters of recommendation from respected peers. When awarded a grant, youll be required to submit a final report detailing how you spent the funds. Sometimes a sample donation of your work will be requested. Grants are not simply free money. They involve many hours of work, but it is time well-spent. Grants have themes. Grant providers offer grants for specific purposes. Make sure that your project is a good match with the grantors parameters before you begin the application process. Some grants offer funding within specific geographic boundaries; is your geographical location a match? Clearly articulate how you will use the grant money. Include a detailed budget. And explain how this project matches the grants mission. Demonstrate that your requests match the funding guidelines. Explain how this grant will serve your professional career, help others (now and in the future) and expand the grantors mission. Â  If you can communicate these three components, youll be a strong candidate. You need to create a verifiable connection between their goals and your dreams. Grants are about you, the grant funder and the impact the project will have on others. Ive received grants to attend writers conferences because improved writing skills helped at work. Once I applied for and received a little-known $4,000 governors grant for teaching excellence to complete graduate level writing courses. The local state educators association awarded me two $10,000 grants to produce a book with a companion CD about Native American music. The Quaker Lyman Fund funded two grants totaling $5,000 to produce a CD and to support writing and teaching about the importance of spiritual connections in retirement communities. A local bank offered a grant for a writing project for children. The Alex Tanous Foundation funded two summer projects to assist with projects which brought women to my home for 10-week classes. The Puffin Foundation offers grants to save something endangered. My grant project proposal was about saving authentic Native American music, which is also endangered. Two grants, assisting me in completing two music books, arrived. Grant funds can ma ke such a positive impact in bringing creative projects to completion! Artist-in-Residencies (AIRs) have also been welcome gifts during the past 10 years. When I accepted AIR positions at Sleeping Bear Dunes (MI), Acadia (ME), Crater Lake (OR) and Great North Cascades (WA) U.S. National Parks, it became obvious that those without an artistic bent were a bit confused about what I would be doing. Writing and offering one public presentation about my work, was my response. Is that all? some questioned. Yes, that was all. What gifts of time and inspiration! A month of time to create is a present that is difficult to describe. In preparation to apply, one needs to have a vision-a project plan. Make sure your calendar is clear, craft an AIR project on paper, gather references and complete the application. Each park offers a unique experience: Sleeping Bear Dunes reflects Native American legends of the Great Lakes, Acadias rockbound coast/islands strengthen the soul, Great North Cascades offers majestic mountains, wild rivers, mammoth trees and Crater Lakes mystical quality is magnetic! My fifth AIR on Marthas Vineyard at Turkeyland Cove for 17 days of solitude in a magnificent island house resulted in several publications. Hundreds of such opportunities are available all over the world. (Visit www.cafe.org .) Im a writer with a passion to bring written projects to completion. Letters are my tools and words are my medium. Inspirational opportunities abound, but one has to search for a good match and write a convincing pitch. Grants offer money and AIR programs offer inspirational opportunities to connect with beauty and serenity. These gifts will continue to enrich your work for many years.

Interactive Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Interactive Marketing - Essay Example From this study it is clear that  the understanding of the needs of the customer is extremely important as this will only allow the company to deliver what the customer expects of the company. Only based on this understanding the company will be able to design its products such that the use of these products results in experiences which surpass initial expectations of the customers. The root of successful value proposition lies in the ability of the supplier company to constantly communicate about the value of its products to the customers and obtaining effective feedback from the customers. The value creation by a travel company is somewhat different and it cannot be compared to the other supplier based companies.This paper highlights that  the primary reason behind this is the fact that travel companies have very little control on the products they sell and they mainly act as intermediaries selling products of third party suppliers and producers like airlines and hotels. Moreov er the products of travel and tourism are considered to be services rather than tangible goods.  Product differentiation is a way of attracting consumers for travel agency. Product differentiation is a strategy in which travel agencies attempt to create and exploit differences between their products and those offered by competitors.  Based on this theoretical understanding the product and price proposition of Gap 360 will be interesting to formulate.

Discuss the relations between cultural claims, power and universal Essay

Discuss the relations between cultural claims, power and universal human rights - Essay Example To begin with, let us consider the controversy surrounding the design of the Australian flag. This case is representative of the ideological and power struggles that is rampant everywhere else in the world. The Australian flag evokes starkly different emotions from different sections of its populace. For the indigenous community, it denotes a selective and exclusivist interpretation of Australian history, which completely neglects pre-colonial heritage. For the majority of the European settlers, the blatant human rights violations perpetrated against innocent hordes of indigenous tribes do not evoke sympathy as much as colonial supremacy. This dual viewpoints of history is typical in the post-colonial societies elsewhere, with a marked shift between the sentiments of the ruling elite and the subaltern masses. As the authors point out, â€Å"These debates about the meaning of flags raise issues that point to the very foundations of international politics. States claim that they embody the identities of the peoples living within their territorial boundaries. These identities are a powerful force, even if they are sometimes contrived or imagined. The principle of state sovereignty is often upheld not just as a fundamental political and legal tool but also as the means of protecting the culture or cultures operating within the state’s boundaries†. (Brown, Bromley & Athreye, p.200) Over the course of the last century, states have claimed legitimacy to their causes using the language of rights. The hope lies therein for minorities and underprivileged within states to also employ the language of rights to claim their legitimate share of opportunity, prosperity and privilege. While traditionally, notions of cultural identity held sway over other abstract categorizations, the world of neo-liberal economic globalization has given precedence to universal human rights and justice. So, the

Business to Business (B2B) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Business to Business (B2B) - Essay Example Glaxo is a pharmaceutical company that sells their products to nursing homes and hospitals. Glaxo sells the potential malaria drugs to most nursing homes and hospitals globally. The company has set an example to other drug companies for their exceptional way to deal with malaria that statistically kills many victims. 3. Find some facts about government buying. For example, how much does the government spend on goods and services? Find some facts about government procurement for local, state or federal. What does the government buy? What specific agency buys what? In most cases, the overall government spending varies from one nation to the other. In the United States, the overall government spending on goods and services approximates to $5, 800, 839, 970 (Young 33). The government buys goods and services such as Education, Health care, Pensions, welfare, Interest, and Defense among others. The Government procurement for the state is on similar principles to marketable contracting, although subjected to laws and regulations. Rules and regulations are set forth in the constitution, and the government exercises its power through regulations and legislation issued. Agencies are charged with supervising and coordinating the government functioning. For instance, under the United States Department Defense, there are many agencies such as the Defense Intelligence, Pentagon Force Protection, National Security, and Missile Defense. These agencies supervise and coordinate the government functioning in issues relating to national

Globalization and media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Globalization and media - Essay Example In an important 2006 article, Schiller asserted that we should reassess any notions we have that the era of cultural domination is over. He looks back over the last quarter century, and draws parallels between the situation faced then, and that with which we are now confronted. On the whole, he concludes that very little has actually changed. Revisiting this comparison is a worthwhile exercise in attempting to distil the essential nature of the debate between those who hold cultural imperialism to be a relevant concept, and those who would have it dismissed as archaic. Schiller noted that in the 1980s, there was a clear division between the western and industrialized ‘First World’, a ‘Second World’ made up largely of the countries aligned to the socialist blocs led by the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China, and a ‘Third World’ made up of those countries which had gained independence in recent decades (295). Across all of thes e categories, the United States was, politically and culturally, the most powerful state, with the Third World deliberately being targeted with American cultural exports, and a vision of an American lifestyle to aspire to. As Schiller himself concedes, there have been some important alterations to the global cultural landscape in the intervening decades. For one, the Second World has practically disappeared. Those countries which might still be grouped in this category, such as China and Vietnam, are increasingly open to American and other Western cultural imports, while some, such as the countries of the former Soviet Union in Eastern Europe, became an area in which American-style cultural norms flourished after the collapse of government from Moscow. Furthermore, we are now consciously witnessing the political and economic decline of the United States, in relative terms, when compared to the fast-growing economies of China and India. The Chinese economy, for example, has just over taken the Japanese in order of size. This raises pressing questions about whether American cultural dominance can be sustained in a world where its political dominance in diminished. Schiller argues that ‘Cultural submersion’ to American norms remains powerful, and this term has in fact been broadened beyond just watching American television programs and movies, to shopping in American-style malls and going to theme parks. There is, of course, a change in the cultural sphere which has been even more important than all of this, and that is the broadening of the definition of media, to cover what we now collectively refer to as the ‘social media’ – including the blogosphere and the social networking websites which have proliferated in the past decade. This issue will be discussed in more detail below, but Schiller argues that despite the rise of new media, television retains its former importance. He claims that the emergence of satellite and cable net works has prevented this happening (297). At this point his argument becomes less powerful. In the early 1990s, as the Soviet bloc collapsed and American culture seemed triumphant all over the world, Schiller’s contention stands firm, but in the present decade, with revolutions and uprisings, as well as broader internal debate and opposition being fuelled by websites and forums that are independent of any political authority, the

Texas Health Resources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Texas Health Resources - Essay Example THR's goal of exceptional performance will have to be accomplished with cost savings, growth, and stakeholder value that may be in tension with quality and patient outcomes. This paper will examine the culture of THR, its contribution to the future success of THR, the present status of the strategic plan, and the future opportunities and obstacles facing THR. One of the primary assets that THR has as an industry leader is its mature and highly focused culture. The culture at THR is primarily based on the three pillars of being a faith-based organization, customer centered care, and the strength of its commitment to physician engagement. THR believes strongly that culture is the 'key driver to THR's competitive advantage" (Texas Health Resources 1, 20). Being a faith based health organization has several cultural aspects that define THR. Faith based, and primarily Christian, organizations have a long historical record of quality health care within the United States. In addition, they have traditionally shared "a passionate commitment to improving the quality of life of vulnerable populations" (MJ DeHaven et al. 1034). This aspect has created an attitude of patient oriented care to those that are most needy with less regard for a profit motive than for patient outcome. Faith based is also regarded as a system that places a high value on li fe and the positive aspects of spirituality in healing. These faith-based traditions are deeply engrained in THR's culture and THR is committed to maintaining these aspects as they move forward during the next 10 years. Bolstering the faith-based culture of THR is the long-term goal of its commitment to patient value and its dedication to working with physicians who have a good cultural fit. THR expresses this aspect of their culture as the Promise and the Value. The Promise is the pillar of their culture that emphasizes the importance of the individual "which can be easily lost in a larger organization" (Texas Health Resources 1, 6). Value relates to delivering the highest level of outcome, safety, and service in accordance with the cost of care. In addition, THR has made a formal commitment to creating physician and hospital relationships that will forge a physician partnership "in leading and managing key aspects of the THR 10-Year Strategic Focus and Transformational Themes" (Texas Health Resources 1, 23). Together, the faith based foundation, the promise to the individual, the concept of greatest value, and the physician partnership form the core concepts of THR's culture. While a great degree of THR's culture is in place and simply needs reinforced, the goal of integrating physicians as active managing partners will be a progressive process. Initially, physicians will be engaged based on a strategy of mutual benefit. Of course, while much of this benefit will be economic in nature, the long-term strategy also has some intangible benefits for the physician. The 10-year transformational plan calls for physicians that have a proud association with THR's brand, advanced clinical outcomes, as well as "tangible economic, clinical, and operational performance" (Texas Health Resources 1, 24). In addition, new employees are oriented into the strong culture of THR by highlighting their strategic statement which promises "to deliver outstanding value

Wk11(31)disc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Wk11(31)disc - Essay Example However, in saying that she went to Baylor Medical Center Emergency room, someone could check the date and probably find out who she was if they were looking. This is one area where the clients confidentially is compromised. Also, stating the entire information about the trial, the fact that it was "lengthy" and the fact that the stepfather denied having done anything wrong would possibly be traceable to a well publicized court case. It is not necessary in this writers opinion to give all the details of the rape. Although it is important to note that she comes to the counseling session because of "anxiety, hypervigilence, nightmares, flashbacks of the rape, and ruminative guilt" are what should be emphasized in the report instead of the exact details of the rape. Also, the report is not written in a professional manner but has the tone of someone wanting to make sure all the "juicy details" are present in the report. According to Nail (1990) an intake interview should have enough relevant information to lead the counselor towards a conclusion about the type of therapeutic interventions that are needed. In order to do this, it is important to organize the data into a logical structure and to develop it chronologically (Nail, 1990). In this sense, the information about the rape should have been categorized differently and it should have been more professionally written. I would feel very uncomfortable showing this report to the client. I would think that they would be upset about all the details in it and this could escalate her anxiety. I think that the report reads like a soap opera rather than a formal intake review. Harvey (1997) states that reports can be readable and without much jargon so that anyone can understand them (p. 273) but this therapist was reporting more than was comfortable for this writer. I also think that the therapist may have been appalled at what

Texas Health Resources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Texas Health Resources - Essay Example THR's goal of exceptional performance will have to be accomplished with cost savings, growth, and stakeholder value that may be in tension with quality and patient outcomes. This paper will examine the culture of THR, its contribution to the future success of THR, the present status of the strategic plan, and the future opportunities and obstacles facing THR. One of the primary assets that THR has as an industry leader is its mature and highly focused culture. The culture at THR is primarily based on the three pillars of being a faith-based organization, customer centered care, and the strength of its commitment to physician engagement. THR believes strongly that culture is the 'key driver to THR's competitive advantage" (Texas Health Resources 1, 20). Being a faith based health organization has several cultural aspects that define THR. Faith based, and primarily Christian, organizations have a long historical record of quality health care within the United States. In addition, they have traditionally shared "a passionate commitment to improving the quality of life of vulnerable populations" (MJ DeHaven et al. 1034). This aspect has created an attitude of patient oriented care to those that are most needy with less regard for a profit motive than for patient outcome. Faith based is also regarded as a system that places a high value on li fe and the positive aspects of spirituality in healing. These faith-based traditions are deeply engrained in THR's culture and THR is committed to maintaining these aspects as they move forward during the next 10 years. Bolstering the faith-based culture of THR is the long-term goal of its commitment to patient value and its dedication to working with physicians who have a good cultural fit. THR expresses this aspect of their culture as the Promise and the Value. The Promise is the pillar of their culture that emphasizes the importance of the individual "which can be easily lost in a larger organization" (Texas Health Resources 1, 6). Value relates to delivering the highest level of outcome, safety, and service in accordance with the cost of care. In addition, THR has made a formal commitment to creating physician and hospital relationships that will forge a physician partnership "in leading and managing key aspects of the THR 10-Year Strategic Focus and Transformational Themes" (Texas Health Resources 1, 23). Together, the faith based foundation, the promise to the individual, the concept of greatest value, and the physician partnership form the core concepts of THR's culture. While a great degree of THR's culture is in place and simply needs reinforced, the goal of integrating physicians as active managing partners will be a progressive process. Initially, physicians will be engaged based on a strategy of mutual benefit. Of course, while much of this benefit will be economic in nature, the long-term strategy also has some intangible benefits for the physician. The 10-year transformational plan calls for physicians that have a proud association with THR's brand, advanced clinical outcomes, as well as "tangible economic, clinical, and operational performance" (Texas Health Resources 1, 24). In addition, new employees are oriented into the strong culture of THR by highlighting their strategic statement which promises "to deliver outstanding value

ACC501 - Accounting for Decision Making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

ACC501 - Accounting for Decision Making - Essay Example It has expanded rapidly since its insinuation and now has a global presence across all continents - Europe, Asia Pacific, South America and Africa and Middle East markets. In the global market, Ford faces heavy competition. The key competitors of Ford include Aston Martin, Mercedes, General Motors, Chrysler, Toyota, Audi, Daewoo, Honda and Porsche. In addition, it faces strong competition in the local markets as well. For instance, in Asia Pacific, Ford faces strong competition from different companies like Fiat, Tata, Hyundai, Maruti Udyog etc. Ford, unlike its competitors, has ventured into the production of a number of different classes of vehicles. It is evident from the diversity of cars ranging from Jaguar, Volvo, Mercury, Lincoln, Land Rover and Mazda (Davies, 2008). Ford also owns a rental business, Hertz Rent a Car with the aim of getting a wider customer base and collecting profile information. If ford Corporation plans to expand a new plant in China, where it expects a huge demand for its products, than it will be a relevant cost to be considered since this activity will result in incremental benefits that the firm will enjoy. If Ford Company accepts the Labor unions demand for increase in 25% of its wages, it will also be a relevant cost since if the decision is incurred they will face an increase in 25% of the direct labor costs therefore it is relevant. Any cost which does not affect the decision is considered as a non-relevant cost. For instance if Ford company is spending an huge amount of money on the research and development for getting the product for sale than it will be regarded as a sunk and non-relevant cost since they do not increase or decrease the sales neither they change the real costs of the organization. Due to advancement of technology, most of the organizations are efficient as is Ford since it is operating on the state of the art technology. As a result of this Ford is underutilized, and

A Theory of Cross-Cultural Communication Essay Example for Free

A Theory of Cross-Cultural Communication Essay A Theory of Cross-Cultural Communication  © Anthony Pym 2003 Intercultural Studies Group Universitat Rovira i Virgili Tarragona, Spain* Pre-print version 3. 3 The following is a series of propositions designed to connect a few ideas about translation as a mode of cross-cultural communication. The ideas are drawn from a multiplicity of existing theories; the aim is not particularly to be original. The propositions are instead intended to link up three endeavors: an abstract conception of cross-cultural communication, a description of the specificities of translation, and an attempt to envisage the future of such communication in a globalizing age. The various points at which the propositions draw on or diverge from previous theories are indicated in a series of notes. 1. 1. 1. 1. 2. On cross-cultural communication in general Cross-cultural communication involves the perceived crossing of a point of contact between cultures. Cultures here are minimally seen as large-scale systems of assumed shared references, linguistic or otherwise1, used for the purposes of reducing complexity. 2 Cultures themselves may idealize one or several centers, where the shared references are felt to be so dense that communication would be without any need for reductions of complexities. Away from such ideals, cultures have peripheries, where references are sparse, or sparsely shared, or mixed with references shared by other cultures. The terms â€Å"center† and â€Å"periphery† are not to be understood geopolitically. (cf. Even-Zohar 1990, Toury 1995) The differences between centers and peripheries are operative fictions rather than primary empirical facts. The very belief that one is in a central position may be enough to curtail complexity, just as the false impression that one is lacking in context may increase complexity. (Pym 1998) The difference between center and periphery may also be characterized in terms of effort. When shared references are believed to be dense (all else being equal), the reduction of complexity requires less effort than when the references are believed to be sparse. Effort here is understood as being on both the sending and receiving sides of messages, as well as in any mediating position or investment in the channel. A text sent and received near a perceived center will thus require less investment of effort than the same text sent from a center to a periphery (assuming that the reduction of complexity is 1. 3. 1. 4. 1. 5. to be to a similar degree in both cases). And further supplementary effort will be needed if the text is to be received in another culture. (Pym 1995) 1. 6. The lines between cultures are marked as cross-over points where the communication act receives supplementary effort of a mediating and discontinuous nature. Such points are usually where translations are carried out. (Pym 2001a) Cross-cultural communication thus marks the points of contact between cultures, although it alone will not join up the points to form any kind of line. (Pym 1998, 2001a, cf. Chatwin 1987) On complexity and its reduction Texts are inscribed objects that can be interpreted in different ways and for different functions, quite independently of any original intentions. The plurality of possible interpretations is what we are calling complexity. The reduction of complexity does not imply any discerning of a true or primal meaning. For example, a reader at this point might interpret the term â€Å"reduction of complexity† as â€Å"understanding†, but such a reading will hopefully be deviated by the following paragraphs. In this sense, the reduction of complexity does not entail an act of understanding in any idealist sense. Nor must effort be expended only to reduce complexity. Effort can also be used to make texts more complex, preparing them for a greater plurality of interpretations. Such might be a certain conception of aesthetic pleasure, diplomatic ambiguity, or communicative mechancete. The degree of appropriate complexity is in each case dependent on the success conditions of the communicative act concerned. On success conditions Success conditions are criteria that make the communicative act beneficial for all or some of the participants concerned. 4 Such criteria may be simple, as in the case of a business negotiation to reach mutual agreement on a sales price: the success condition might be that a price is agreed to by all participants.

Doublethink In 1984 Essay -- essays research papers

What is doublethink? Orwell describes doublethink as “the power of holding two contradictory beliefs in one’s mind simultaneously, and accepting both of them.'; In 1984, doublethink is the normal way of thought, and as a result everyone understands it and practices it. Doublethink is different from changing ones mind, lying, and self-deception in many ways. Doublethink involves believing in the two contradictory ideas at the same time. This is different from lying because lying is saying something that is wrong and knowing that it is wrong but still saying it anyway. For example lets say you broke a vase. When your mother asks you who broke the vase and you say the dog did it that would be lying. The reason it is not doublethink is that you do not believe in two different beliefs at one time. You don’t believe you broke the vase and the dog broke the vase, you absolutely know you broke the vase and are trying to put the blame on the dog as to avoid trouble. Changing ones mind is also different from doublethink. Changing ones mind is accepting or believing one thing, then deciding to accept or believe something else different then what you thought before. An example of changing ones mind would believe the earth is flat and then after seeing sufficient evidence that it is not flat but actually round. Due to the new evidence you would change your mind and now believe the earth is round as you previously thought it was flat. This is clearly different from doublethink because you are not believing in two ideas at the same time and accepting both. You are believing one thing, then completely change your mind and believing in another. Changing ones mind involves completely dismissing one idea to believe in the other, which means you, cannot believe in both at the same time. Finally doublethink is also different from self-deception. Self-deception is to mislead or be unfaithful to the way someone perceives him or her self or to mislead the way they th ink about something else. Self-deception would be the closet to doublethink then the other two examples given before. However it still is different from doublethink. With self-deception you are fooling yourself to believe something that really is not true. It is like your not accepting a fact or idea and replacing it with one that you believe, either if it is right or wrong. As said befor... ...child is taught that man, in current form, was put on this earth by God himself and then in the science class it is explained to them how man is evolved from primates. This is not virtuous at all for society. There needs to be a defining gap between religion and science. How are little children suppose to know which is right and which is wrong when they are told two different ways of how man has come upon this earth and they are contradictory. Religion however is deemed to be necessary by many people. They feel that people need some form of organized religion. Religion does help many people get through hard times in their life and gives them hope. However, it causes problems when science is introduced into the life of a child who is experiencing life and trying to figure out the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Doublethink is the idea of believing in two contradictory ideas but accepting both. There are instances of doublethink in our society that include affirmative action, jury duty, and religion. These all have positives and negatives on the modern day American society. Doublethink for the most part is not that necessary for society. It causes problems more often then not.

Weed Kill Experiment Report :: essays research papers

Weed Kill Report ABSTRACT - The objective of this experiment is to determine which of three weed kill methods will be most successful in killing the Cobblers peg weed over a five day period. Two of the weed kill methods are natural - boiling water and vinegar solution. One of the weed kill methods is a weed spray Yates ZERO. The most effective weed kill was found by examining how fast and effectively each weed kill treatment killed its group of seventeen weeds which were separated into one of three foam boxes over a period of five days. The most successful method was found to be one of the natural methods, boiling water. The next best method was the herbicide and then the least successful method was the vinegar solution which killed none of its weeds. INTRODUCTION – My initial observation was that simple conservation actions such as reducing the use of pesticides can achieve measurable improvements in habitat quality and environmental health. Herbicides are toxic to most mammals as well as to the beneficial insects that you want to encourage in your garden. Sometimes herbicides seep into the ground water; causing contamination of which the long term effects are not known. Herbicide application can also result in drift or movement in the soil, this endangers wanted vegetation nearby. Herbicides are used far too rampantly. Excessive use of toxic herbicides is used when not necessary and because most are not aware of the many other natural alternatives. We must find more ways to cut back on the use of chemical herbicides and change to biological weed control methods. Foreign plants which turn into weeds are continuously being introduced to Australia both accidentally and intentionally. They can cause extreme damage to Australia’s environment, as they threaten the survival of many native plants. They are successful in growing as they - usually grow faster than native plants competing for nutrients, water, space etc, they survive better as they do not have the pests and diseases that would normally control them in their natural habitats, they take over the native plants that the native animals use for shelter, food and nesting. The Cobblers peg (Bidens pilosa) also known as farmers friend, Spanish needle and beggars tick was introduced from South America and has become a weed in Australia. Individual flowers are yellow with white petals and do not last for very long, eventually turning into seeds.

A Critical Review of Knowledge Management as a Management Tool

Journal of Knowledge Management Emerald Article: A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson Article information: To cite this document: Maria Martensson, (2000),†A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool†, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 4 Iss: 3 pp. 204 – 216 Permanent link to this document: http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/13673270010350002 Downloaded on: 23-04-2012 References: This document contains references to 78 other documents Citations: This document has been cited by 18 other documentsTo copy this document: [email  protected] om This document has been downloaded 12944 times. Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by Shahid University of Beheshti For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. Information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guid elines are available for all. Additional help for authors is available for Emerald subscribers. Please visit www. emeraldinsight. com/authors for more information.About Emerald www. emeraldinsight. om With over forty years' experience, Emerald Group Publishing is a leading independent publisher of global research with impact in business, society, public policy and education. In total, Emerald publishes over 275 journals and more than 130 book series, as well as an extensive range of online products and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 3 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. *Related content and download information correct at time of download.A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Introduction Over the past several years there have been intensive discussions about the importance of knowledge management (KM) within our society. Scholars and observers from disciplines as disparate as sociology, economics, and management science agree that a transformation has occurred  ± â€Å"knowledge† is at centre stage (Davenport et al. , 1998). KM and related strategy concepts are promoted as important and necessary components for organisations to survive and maintain their competitive keenness.It has become necessary for managers and executives to address â€Å"KM† (Goodman and Chinowsky, 1997). KM is considered a prerequisite for higher productivity and flexibility in both the private and the public sectors. McKern (1996) argues that powerful forces are reshaping the economic and business world and many call for a fundamental shift in organisation processes and human resources strategy. The prime forces of change include globalisation, higher degrees of complexity, new technology, increased competition, changing client demands, and changing economic and political st ructures.Organisations are beginning to recognise that technology-based competitive advantages are transient and that the only sustainable competitive advantages they have are their employees (Black and Synan, 1997). This development has forced steep learning curves as organisations struggle to adapt quickly, respond faster, and proactively shape their industries (Allee, 1996). To remain at the forefront and maintain a competitive edge organisations must have a good capacity to retain, develop, organise, and utilise their employee competencies (Gronhaug and Nordhaug, 1992).E The commonality of the above studies is that they all regard knowledge as a critical factor for an organisation's survival. However, knowledge has always been a valuable asset (Chase, 2000) and an important production component, but what is KM? Is it a new way to understand organising and organisations, is it a tool for exploiting knowledge, or is it just This study was supported by the European Commission, the OECD, the Swedish Council for Work Life Research, Nutek, the Swedish Ministry of Trade and Industry, and the Swedish Public Relations Association.The author Maria Martensson is a PhD student in the Stockholm E University School of Business, Stockholm, Sweden. Keywords Knowledge management, Knowledge, Strategy Abstract Over the past several years there have been intensive discussions about the importance of knowledge management within our society. The management of knowledge is promoted as an important and necessary factor for organisational survival and maintenance of competitive strength. To remain at the forefront organisations need a good capacity to retain, develop, organise, and utilise their employees' capabilities.Knowledge and the management of knowledge appear to be regarded as increasingly important features for organisational survival. Explores knowledge management with respect to its content, its definition and domain in theory and practice, its use and implications, and to point out some problems inherent in the concept. The main contribution of this paper is an extensive literature survey on knowledge management. Electronic access The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www. emerald-library. com Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 .Number 3 . 2000 . pp. 204 ±216 # MCB University Press . ISSN 1367-3270 04 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 another relabelling in the ceaseless flow of fashionable management concepts? The purpose of this paper is to map the contents given to KM, its definition and domain in theory and practice, its use and implications, and to point out some problems inherent in the concept. To determine what KM is, a review of the literature is necessary. Since it is not feasible to cover all the literature, the aim of the survey is not so much to summarise but to draw some conclusions about KM.The first step was to search for articles in databases using the keyword â€Å"knowledge management† and the combination â€Å"knowledge management† and â€Å"strategy†. The literature review is narrow in the sense that only studies using these keywords were included. Most of the literature in this review is of practical nature rather than theoretical (i. e. knowledgebased theory and competence-based theory). The emergence of KM seems to a great extent to be business driven (Carrillo, 2000). The limited number of keywords probably accounts for the skewed distribution of articles in favour of the practical-oriented articles.Another limitation is related to how the concept of knowledge is regarded. What is found in the literature survey is of course just a fraction of what is written about knowledge; however, these are still the things that are pointed out in the literature. In describing knowledge, it is not my intention to give a comple te overview of the concept; rather, the description of knowledge is used as a tool for describing the concept KM. The paper is organised into three sections. The first section is devoted to the origins and domain of KM. The second describes KM as a tool for management, as an informationhandling tool, and as a strategic tool.In the final section, a critical examination of the concept and its implications is presented. I try to determine whether the concept of KM is a necessary tool for more efficient management, or if it is just â€Å"the emperor in new clothes†. Origins and domain of knowledge management Theoretical origins to knowledge management The field of KM can be seen as an integral part of the broader concept â€Å"intellectual capital† (Roos et al. , 1997). Guthrie (2000) make is the following distinction between KM and â€Å"intellectual capital†  ± KM is about the management of the â€Å"intellectual capital† controlled by the company.However , too often the delineation between the two terms is unclear and seldom adequately addressed (Guthrie, 2000). The problem of the management of knowledge is not new according to Roos et al. (1997). The authors use the concept â€Å"intellectual capital† as an umbrella term. â€Å"Intellectual capital† in Skandia, a major insurance company, is defined as â€Å"the possession of knowledge, applied experience, organisational technology, customer relationships, and professional skills that provide Skandia with a competitive edge in the market† (Edvinsson, 1997).Within this descriptive framework, Skandia, Dow Chemical (Petrash, 1996), and many other companies (e. g. Stewart, 1997) prefer to make an operational distinction between human, organisational, and customer capital. Roos et al. (1997) suggest that â€Å"intellectual capital† can be traced to two streams of thought, strategy and measurement. Within the strategic area, the focus is on studying the creatio n and use of knowledge and the relationship between knowledge and success or value creation.Measurement focuses on the need to develop new information systems, measuring non-financial data alongside the traditional financial ones. The conceptual roots of intellectual capital are depicted in Figure 1. With respect to this study, strategic planning and (operational) management of knowledge are important topics. The paper attempts to explore the creation and use of knowledge and the way it is leveraged into value. Key questions addressed include how is the use of knowledge translated into value? How can it be implemented? What important factors are needed for strategic management planning and implementation?A firm's tangible and intangible resources, which are under the control of the firm's administrative organ (referred to as an organisation's condition in Rutihinda, 1996), may be grouped into two main categories: firm resources and firm capabilities (Grant, 1991). According to Grant (1991), this designation implies that resources are inputs into the production process and the capability of a firm is the capacity, what it can do, as a result of teams of resources working together. 205 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 000 . 204 ±216 Figure 1 Conceptual roots of intellectual capital A differentiation between intangible and tangible resources, or an equivalent distinction, appears to be logically required. In a study by Johanson et al. (1998), the question of what is meant by intangibles was raised. The authors concluded that there is no generally accepted definition of intangibles. Intangibles can be studied from at least three perspectives (e. g. accounting, statistics, and managerial). The present paper defines intangibles from the perspective of managerial purposes, i. e. management on both the strategic and operational level.To summarise, whereas a classif ication of intangibles in terms of R&D, software, marketing, and training appears to have been the dominant mode ten years ago, today's classification schemes are oriented towards distinguishing between external (customerrelated) and internal structures, on the one hand, and human capital, on the other (e. g. Sveiby, 1997; Roos and Roos, 1997; Petrash, 1996; Skandia, 1995). Influenced by the resource-based theory of the firm (e. g. Penrose), Luwendahl (1997) and Haanes and Luwendahl (1997) have classified a number of intangible resources from a strategic management perspective.Because there appears to be little consensus on the definition of â€Å"resources†, Haanes and Luwendahl refer to Itami (1987). Resources consist of: . . physical, human, and monetary resources that are needed for business operations to eventuate; and information-based resources, such as management skills, technology, consumer information, brand name, reputation, and corporate culture. After further ela boration on the concepts of intangible resources, intangible assets, capabilities, and competencies, Haanes and Luwendahl categorise intangible resources into competence and relational resources.The latter term refers to such intangibles as reputation, relations, and client loyalty, which are conceived of as being fundamental to the performance of the firm. Competence is defined as the ability to perform a given task and exists at both the individual and organisational level. Within the individual sphere, it includes knowledge, skills, and aptitudes; within the organisational sphere, it includes client-specific databases, technology, routines, methods, procedures, and organisational culture. The basic scheme s shown in Figure 2. Luwendahl (1997) takes the division one step further, since he divides competence and relational categories into the subgroups individual and collective, depending on whether the employee or the organisation is accentuated: Scholars of the â€Å"theory of t he firm† have begun to emphasize the sources and conditions of what 206 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 Figure 2 Intangible resources ave been described as â€Å"the organizational advantages†, rather than focus on the causes and consequences of market failure. Typically, researchers see such organizational advantage as acquiring from the particular capabilities organizations have for creating and sharing knowledge (Nahapiet and Ghoshal, 1998). in knowledge creation, storage, and deployment (Roberts, 1998; see also Grant, 1991). A firm's distinctive competence is based on the specialised resources, assets, and skills it possesses, and focuses attention on their optimum utilisation to build competitive advantage and economic wealth (Penrose in Rutihinda, 1996).From the theory of the firm, two basic theories have emerged: resource-based theory and know ledge-based theory. Knowledgebased theory of the firm postulates that knowledge is the only resource that provides sustainable competitive advantage, and, therefore, the firm's attention and decision making should focus primarily on knowledge and the competitive capabilities derived from it (Roberts, 1998). The firm is considered being a knowledge integrating institution. Its role is neither the acquisition nor the creation of organisational knowledge; this is the role and prerequisite of the individual.Knowledge resides in and with individual people, the firm merely integrates the individually owned knowledge by providing structural arrangements of co-ordination and cooperation of specialised knowledge workers. That is, the firm focuses on the organisational processes flowing through these structural arrangements, through which individuals engage Empirical origins to knowledge management DiMattia and Oder (1997) argue that the growth of â€Å"knowledge management† has emerge d from two fundamental shifts: downsizing and technological development.Downsizing During the 1980s, downsizing was the popular strategy to reduce overhead and increase profits; however, the downside to being â€Å"lean and mean† soon became evident (Forbes, 1997). The downsizing strategy resulted in a loss of important knowledge, as employees left and took the knowledge that they had accumulated over the years with them (Piggott, 1997). With time, organisations had come to recognise that they had lost years of valuable information and expertise and were now determined to protect themselves against a recurrence (DiMattia and Oder, 1997).This led management to undertake a â€Å"knowledge management† strategy in an effort to store and retain employee knowledge for the future benefit of the company (Forbes, 1997). Organisations are now trying to use technology and systems to capture the knowledge residing in the minds of their employees, so it can be easily shared within the organisation. When stored, it becomes a 207 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 eusable resource that can provide a wealth of competitive advantages, including enhanced organisational capacities, facilitating output, and lowering costs (Forbes, 1997). Technological development The technological development has heightened the interest in â€Å"knowledge management† through two main sources: the explosive growth of information resources such as the Internet and the accelerating pace of technological change (Hibbard, 1997; Mayo, 1998). The recent IT development has affected both the lives of people and organisations (Mayo, 1998).The continual flow of information leaves us feeling overwhelmed and in a general state of disquietude (e. g. that we are missing important details) (Hibbard, 1997). DiMattia and Oder (1997) postulate that â€Å"knowledge managementâ €  is an attempt to cope with the explosion of information and to capitalise on increased knowledge in the workplace. The emerging technological development enables global sharing of information across platforms and continents (DiMattia and Oder, 1997) and can serve as a tool within an organisation to use knowledge more effectively.Capturing a company's collective expertise in databases can help organisations to â€Å"know what they actually know†, and then marshal and exploit this knowledge in a systematic way (Blake, 1998). The domain of knowledge management An essential part of KM is, of course, knowledge. To map the domains of knowledge, traits of the concept knowledge have been put forward based on the stream of research reviewed. The question of the nature of knowledge is extremely challenging.Although philosophers have been discussing the issue for several hundred years, the search for a formal definition continues (Emery, 1997). The definitions appearing in the lit erature range from studying knowledge from a broad perspective to more sophisticated definitions. The present review has resulted in two definitions of knowledge. Characteristics of knowledge The following taxonomy of knowledge has been expressed in the KM literature: . Knowledge cannot easily be stored (Gopal and Gagnon, 1995). Knowledge is something that resides in people's . . inds rather than in computers (The Banker, 1997). Unlike raw material, knowledge usually is not coded, audited, inventoried, and stacked in a warehouse for employees to use as needed. It is scattered, messy, and easy to lose (Galagan, 1997). Furthermore, Allee (1997a) has defined knowledge in terms of 12 qualities: knowledge is messy; it is self-organising; it seeks community; it travels on language; it is slippery; it likes looseness; it experiments; it does not grow forever; it is a social phenomenon; it evolves organically; it is multi-modal; and it is multi-dimensional.To use the flow of data/informatio n we must develop effective ways to make the input of and access to information easy (Mayo, 1998) and to sort the useful from the useless (Schaefer, 1998). We must develop systems where people are able to â€Å"navigate† effectively. This can be made by storing the information in different databases and make it possible for people to cross-reference and link documents speedily and easily (Mayo, 1998). Information has little value and will not become knowledge until it is processed by the human mind (Ash, 1998).Knowledge involves the processing, creation, or use of information in the mind of the individual (Kirchner, 1997). Although information is not knowledge, it is an important aspect of knowledge. The process begins with facts and data, which are organised and structured to produce general information. The next stage involves organising and filtering this information to meet the requirements of a specific community of users, producing contextual information. Next, individu als assimilate the contextual information and transform it into knowledge.This transformation process is affected by individuals' experiences, attitudes, and the context in which they work. The final stage of the continuum is behaviour; unless information and knowledge lead to an informed decision or action, the whole process becomes invalidated (Infield, 1997). Knowledge should be studied in context. Knowledge is information combined with experience, context, interpretation, reflection, and perspective (Davenport et al. , 1998; Kirchner, 1997; Frappaolo, 208 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson EJournal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 . 1997) that adds a new level of insight (Frappaolo, 1997). Allee (1997b) suggests that knowledge becomes meaningful when it is seen in the larger context of our culture, which evolves out of our beliefs and philosophy. The final characteristic is that knowledge is ineffectual if it is not used. Knowledge is a high-value form of information that is ready to be applied to decisions and actions (Davenport et al. , 1998). Sveiby (1997) has defined it as the capacity to act on information and thereby make it valuable.Knowledge management as a management tool KM is often described as a management tool. More precisely, it is described either as an operational tool or as a strategically focused management tool. Knowledge management as an information handling tool Within the field of KM (Figure 3), knowledge is often regarded as an information handling problem. It deals with the creation, management and exploitation of knowledge. Some of the literature fits into a definition of KM that consists of separate but related stages. The first two stages are invariably linked, both on abstract theoretical grounds and in practice.As the first step in the process, there is acquisition of information. In the second stage, the information is entered into a storage system and organised logically. Almost every definition of knowledge management includes the storage of knowledge (e. g. Yeh et al. , 2000; Blake, 1998, 2000; Mayo, 1998; Anthes, 1998; Cole-Gomolski, 1997a, 1997b, 1998; Symoens, 1998; Laberis, 1998; Nerney, 1997; Ostro, 1997; InfoWorld, 1997; Watson, 1998; LaPlante, 1997; Ash, 1998; DiMattia and Oder, 1997; Hibbard, 1997; Finerty, 1997; Bassi, 1997).KM is about acquisition and storage of workers' knowledge and making information accessible to other employees within the organisation. This is often achieved by using various technologies such as Internet and databases, and is a conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge (Papows, 1998). Once the information is stored in the various databases, the third stage is initiated. In this stage, the stored information is made accessible to as many employees as possible within the organisation (LaPlante, 1997).It is about distributing it into the hands of the right end users at the right time (Ost ro, 1997) and where it can be of best use (Nerney, 1997). The final stage is about utilisation of information. This process begins with people sharing knowledge by talking and socialising with one another or by exchanging information in digital or analogue form (Laberis, 1998). Tacit and explicit knowledge Another way of defining knowledge is to make a distinction between â€Å"tacit† and â€Å"explicit† knowledge (Polyani, 1966).Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) make the same point in more precise terms: . Explicit knowledge is documented and public; structured, fixed-content, externalised, and conscious (Duffy, 2000). Explicit knowledge is what can be captured and shared through information technology. . Tacit knowledge resides in the human mind, behaviour, and perception (Duffy, 2000). Tacit knowledge evolves from people's interactions and requires skill and practice. Nonaka and Takeuchi suggest that tacit knowledge is hidden and thus cannot be easily represented via elect ronics.Tacit refers to hunches, intuitions and insights (Guth, 1996), it is personal, undocumented, contextsensitive, dynamically created and derived, internalised and experience-based (Duffy, 2000). Nonaka and Takeuchi mean that knowledge is the product of the interaction of explicit and tacit knowledge. The process of creating knowledge results in a spiralling of knowledge acquisition. It starts with people sharing their internal tacit knowledge by socialising with others or by capturing it in digital or analogue form. Other people then internalise the shared knowledge, and that process creates new knowledge.These people, with the newly created knowledge, then share this knowledge with others, and the process begins again. Hibbard (1997) articulated this process as innovation. 209 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 Figure 3 The stages of knowledge management Knowl edge management as a strategic management tool KM and its implications are frequently discussed at seminars and conferences. The number of companies claiming to work with knowledge management is growing steadily.Several surveys have been conducted to determine how many organisations are working or planning to work with KM (Nerney, 1997; Hibbard and Carrillo, 1998; Cole-Gomolski, 1998). A recurrent problem with these studies is that the concepts (e. g. the use of KM) are seldom defined. This uncertainty has made it difficult to draw the desired inferences from the results of these studies. The surveys are attempts to either implement KM strategies or implement measurement systems on how to measure different intangible assets, or a combination of both. The central idea underlying a strategy is that organisations must adjust their capabilities (i. . their resources and skills) to a constantly changing complex external E environment (Teece, in Gronhaug and Nordhaug, 1992). Gopal and Gag non (1995) put it succinctly when they maintain that effective KM starts with a strategy. Within a KM strategy, knowledge is recognised as an organisation's most valuable and under-used resource and places the intellectual capital at the centre of what an organisation does (Ash, 1998). To start to create a KM strategy, an organisation needs to build systems for capturing and transferring internal knowledge and best practices (Allerton, 1998).The purpose, goal and expected outcomes of an organisation's work with KM are many. For instance, KM can be seen as a way to improve performance (Ostro, 1997; Bassi, 1997), productivity and competitiveness (Maglitta, 1995), a way to improve effective acquisition, sharing and usage of information within organisations (Maglitta, 1995), a tool for improved decision making (People Management, 1998; Cole-Gomolski, 1997a, 1997b), a way to capture best practices (ColeGomolski, 1998), a way to reduce research costs and delays (Maglitta, 1995), and a way o become a more innovative organisation (People Management, 1998; Hibbard, 1997). A study by the American Productivity and Quality Center shows that 89 per cent of the participants in the study said that the core goal for knowledge management is to capture and transfer knowledge and best practices (Allerton, 1998). People Management (1998) reports on a survey in which individuals responsible for implementing KM strategy were interviewed.The results indicated that the main obstacles to implementation were lack of ownership of the problem (64 per cent), lack of time (60 per cent), organisational structure (54 per cent), senior management commitment (46 per cent), rewards and recognition (46 per cent), and an emphasis on individuals rather than on teamwork (45 per cent). Among â€Å"Fortune 1000† companies the main problems with KM projects are a lack of focus and a lot of reinventing the wheel (Coleman, 1998).Based on an extensive multi-firm study by the American Productivity and Quality Center, hurdles to KM include the lack of a commonly held model for knowledge creation and dissemination and the absence of systems or processes designed to support and evaluate the effectiveness of KM (Ostro, 1997). Most firms with a KM system based purely on a technology solution have found that such an approach fails. Though technology may be necessary for KM, it appears never to be sufficient (Warren, 1999; Bassi, 1997).To successfully create and implement a knowledge management strategy, authors have suggested that certain critical elements must be included. The elements I have found to be of particular importance are the following: . the â€Å"so what? † question; . support from top management; . communication; . creativity; . culture and people; . sharing knowledge; . incentives; . time; . evaluation. 210 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 The importance of the â€Å"so what? ‘ questions A KM strategy should be linked to what the organisation is attempting to achieve. It is also important to articulate the purpose of the KM strategy. What benefits does the organisation expect to gain from their work with KM? How will it affect the employees' work? (Klaila, 2000) The importance of support from top management The personnel function should focus on top management to encourage processes that will promote cross-boundary learning and sharing. This includes helping to set up and, possibly, fund knowledge networks, as well as defining and developing the skills of learning from other people (Mayo, 1998).Organisations that have achieved the greatest success in KM are those that have appointed a senior-level executive to assume the mantle of full-time chief knowledge officer (Gopal and Gagnon, 1995). The importance of communication Saunders (in Ash, 1998) found that the missing factor in strategic management texts was com munication. According to the consultants, a large proportion of the organisations failed to implement the strategies because of a lack of communication. Only a few companies designed a â€Å"good† communication plan to follow through on business strategies.After reviewing nearly 200 articles and conference proceedings on data warehousing, Keen (1997) was struck by how little is said about action  ± â€Å"real† people making â€Å"real† decisions to have a â€Å"real† impact. They do not look at how those real people become informed. The importance of creativity As Kao (1997) notes, a good strategy to work with KM issues is not enough. The author describes the link between strategy and creativity. A connection between these two allows organisations to survive in the future.The implications of business creativity will depend upon the type of fusion created between KM and the basic skills of creativity management (Kao, 1997). The importance of culture and people Successful implementation of KM is linked to such entities as culture and people. In a recent study where the importance of people, as opposed to technology and processes, was examined when implementing a KM strategy, 70 per cent reported that employees are the most important factor and 75 per cent reported that there should be an even greater emphasis on people (People Management, 1998).In the view of the best-practice organisations, people and culture are at the heart of creating a successful knowledgebased organisation. Several studies have shown that people and cultural issues are the most difficult problems to resolve, but produce the greatest benefits (People Management, 1998). The biggest challenge for KM is not a technical one  ± it can be integrated into any number of IT systems  ± but a cultural one (Forbes, 1997; Koudsi, 2000). It is the difficult task of overcoming cultural barriers, especially the sentiment that holding information is more aluable than sharin g it (Warren, 1999; Anthes, 1998). This is supported by Hadley Reynolds, at Delphi Group, in Boston who released a study demonstrating that corporate culture was cited by 53 per cent of the respondents as being the biggest obstacle to deploying KM applications (Cole-Gomolski, 1997b). In another study (People Management, 1998), culture was seen by 80 per cent of those surveyed as the biggest obstacle in creating a knowledge-based organisation. The importance of sharing knowledge The ability to share knowledge and collaborate are all too often missing in our organisations (Mayo, 1998).Efforts to deploy KM group-ware are frequently met with employee reluctance to share their expertise (Cole-Gomolski, 1997b). The likely reason for this is that employees are competitive by nature and may be more inclined to hoard than share the knowledge they possess (Forbes, 1997). On the other hand, a better process of sharing knowledge benefits the firm. This is shown in a study of 33 organisations co nducted by the American Productivity and Quality Center (Alter, 1997). Ostro (1997) reports the results of an extensive multi-firm study by the American Productivity and Quality Center.He found that the main reason why knowledge was not being shared was that employees did not realise their experiences would be valuable to others. Mayo (1998) feels that recruiters should look for capabilities to share knowledge with 211 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 new employees, as well as assessing what new knowledge they can bring to an organisation.Part of the introduction process for recruits should involve â€Å"capturing† their knowledge and experience. Although most new employees bring useful specialist experience with them, few people tap this rich reservoir of information. Meanwhile, the introduction should also be about passing on the experience of predecessor s to new employees. Mayo states that: When people leave, the HR department asks for their company car keys and so on. Why not conduct a recruitment interview in reverse to retrieve information? nd that the pivotal role is played by culture; by an unquestioned, even unconscious, code that encourages knowledge sharing and cooperative behaviour (The Banker, 1997). The importance of time It is important to create time and opportunities for people to learn. One successful approach is to create formal learning networks so that the identification and transfer of effective practices become part of the job (Galagan, 1997). The greatest enemies of knowledge sharing are the time that is required to input and access information and the lack of motivation among potential users (Mayo, 1998).The importance of evaluation It is important to create a system for evaluating the attempts that are made to use KM. The evaluation system can range from informal attempts, such as talking to people about how â€Å"best practice† is shared within the firm, or to the use of far more sophisticated tools to measure the outcomes. To summarise, to implement a KM strategy successfully both the creation and the leverage of knowledge must be taken into account. He also points out that there is an unwillingness to trust employees with information.A favourite excuse given by organisations that withhold information is one of â€Å"commercial sensitivity†, which reflects an unwillingness to trust employees with information. Salary surveys are a good example of this. In how many organisations are such data freely available to all interested employees? The importance of incentives One of the most important issues when working on a KM strategy is to create the right incentives for people to share and apply knowledge (The Banker, 1997). The personal reward systems must support the culture of sharing knowledge (Keeler, 2000; Mayo, 1998).To improve this process it is crucial to reward employ ees that contribute their expertise and to make sure employees understand the benefits of KM (ColeGomolski, 1997b). The organisations should ask themselves the following questions: Are the employees receiving signals that encourage the process of sharing knowledge? What criterion is used for promoting staff? Are instances in which the business has benefited from sharing learning publicly celebrated? Are mistakes made that could have been avoided if it had been known that similar errors had happened in the past (Mayo, 1998)?A problem with many reward systems and incentives for sharing knowledge is that useful knowledge comes from relatively low down in the organisation, from people who are not on incentive systems and probably respond much more readily to the feeling that they belong to highly motivated, leading edge, innovative groups of people. This probably means in the Discussion The literature and theories concerning the management of knowledge have grown remarkably during the p ast couple of years. Nevertheless, what is the contribution from KM?Is it business salvation or the â€Å"emperor's new clothes†? Because of downsizing, organisations have been forced to create systems and processes that decrease the dependencies on the knowledge residing within the individuals. To exploit knowledge more efficiently organisations are now trying to codify and store the individual's knowledge, i. e. making tacit knowledge explicit and transposing individual knowledge into organisational knowledge. Those transformation processes have been made possible through the recent and fast development within IT.Because knowledge is largely tacit and individually owned, it is difficult to have charge of and control over the course of knowledge. The literature review suggests that the major contribution from KM concerns the effort to transpose tacit knowledge into explicit information, which 212 A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool Maria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 will lead to greater possibilities to manage and control knowledge effectively. One major issue that has hardly been dealt with and, therefore, n need of further inquiry concerns how this process of translating tacit into explicit knowledge works. The management of knowledge may be examined from two theoretical perspectives. One perspective involves theories where the focus is on the individual's knowledge; the second comprises theories wherein the knowledge itself is the centre of interest. Human capital is defined by Flamholtz (1985) as â€Å"the knowledge, skills and experience of people†. Within human capital theories, the employee is regarded as the bearer of knowledge.Another perspective, in which knowledge is the centre of interest, is the knowledge-based theory of the firm. In such theories, the individual exists but the focus is more on knowledge than the individual. The two perspectives could be described as being either individualistic or holistic. From a holistic view the sum of an organisation is more than the sum of the individuals, whereas from an individualistic view, the sum of an organisation is the sum of the individuals (Hollis, 1994). Within the recent theoretical development (i. e. nowledge-based theories of the firm), the focus has shifted from an individual perspective to an emphasis on knowledge residing in the organisation as a whole, i. e. a holistic approach. Mayo (1998) noted that many companies have been managing knowledge for decades but that few companies, whether global or national, use these disciplines on a regular basis. One problem regarding knowledge and KM is to outline its content and domain. This literature review highlights the need to better clarify what we mean when we are using concepts such as â€Å"knowledge† and â€Å"KM†.Carrillo (2000) argues that one can often find the most diverse labels applied to KM. There are al so those who believe that term to be inconsistent because knowledge as such cannot be managed (Carrillo, 2000). The lack of clearly defined concepts has been explored in closely related areas (Johanson et al. , 1998; Grojer and Johanson, 1998; Power, E 1997). Also the boundaries of KM are fuzzy. To illustrate, what are the differences between â€Å"competitive intelligence† (Fleicher, 1998), â€Å"intellectual capital† and KM? Sometimes knowledge is clearly defined in the original source, but too often it is not.Because of the nature of knowledge, the attainment of a formal definition is unlikely. There is thus a need for clarification of what we are talking about whenever the word â€Å"knowledge† is used. A large bulk of the present review is based on an IT perspective. The focus here is more on creating databases for storing information and making the information available, and thus the literature review focuses mainly on explicit knowledge (Warren, 1999). Th e first part of KM, the storage of information, is the one most often described. This is probably because the storage of information is the first and perhaps the easiest phase of KM.However, what is missing is how this information can be used and translated into knowledge and become a part of the organisation's knowledge base. The ambiguity of the distinction between information and knowledge has been a major source of difficulty and, in many articles, the distinction between information and knowledge is not clearly articulated. Duffy (2000) argues that technology vendors have contributed to this confusion. Every technology that ever had anything to do with digitised information is now a KM product, or even a complete KM solution.Knowledge is often used as something similar to information, but information and knowledge are far from synonymous. Tacit knowledge might have begun as information, but because it is processed by the human mind, it can be translated into explicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is identical to information; it can be easily stored outside the human mind (e. g. in databases), but nonetheless it cannot be described as knowledge until it has been processed. The impact of KM is a complex field. If KM is used as a strategic tool the outcome is difficult to estimate.The problem to estimate the value of KM remains even if it is used as an operational tool. However, the operative perspective could be considered estimated by the organisation if the tool is used. If it had no value the organisations would not use it. Theoretically, it is easier to determine the value of KM. This is because knowledge, through downsizing, is a scarce resource. Another pertinent topic missing when the value of KM is described in the literature is costs. None of the articles reviewed discussed the connection between the costs in the 213 A critical review of knowledge management as a management toolMaria Martensson E Journal of Knowledge Management Volume 4 . Number 3 . 2000 . 204 ±216 organisation's work and KM. That is, the values created by the management of knowledge are not related to the costs connected to the work. When analysing Roos et al. ‘s (1997, p. 15) model on the conceptual roots of intellectual capital (see Figure 1), we see that all the strategic contributions on knowledge zero in on two essential features: the way knowledge is created and the way it is leveraged into value. Some concepts focus almost exclusively on one point or the other; e. g. he learning organisation concepts mostly examine the mechanism of knowledge development. However, other concepts such as KM are more balanced, focusing on both. The knowledge leverage class is divided into three sub-classes: KM, core competencies, and invisible assets. Likewise, the knowledge development class is divided into three subclasses: learning organisation, conversation management, and innovation. An organisation's work with KM should focus on transposing tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge and see to it that individual knowledge becomes organisational knowledge.This can be explained not only by a need for organisations to better manage knowledge by establishing core competencies for individuals, judging success and performance indicators via recognition of invisible assets, but also for organisations to strive to become an innovative organisation and a learning organisation with a knowledge sharing culture. The final question raised in this paper concerns whether knowledge is always something good? Knowledge is assumed to be generally positive. However, it is untenable to assume that knowledge is always positive and good.Within the framework of knowledgebased theory, it is claimed that the only resource that provides an organisation with sustainable competitive advantages is knowledge. Nonetheless, knowledge as such will not have much value for the organisation in building its competitive advantages since only relevant knowledge can function in such a capacity. To see that the concept of KM will not just vanish as so many other management concepts have done over the years, it is important that KM is not regarded as â€Å"the Jack of all trades†. If this happens, there is the risk that it will probably become â€Å"the master of none†.